Listen to thisThis paper reviews the theoretical origins of social skills training and reviews the basic elements of implementation. Examples are presented as to the manner in which social skills training activities can be incorporated into child treatment programs by Child and Youth Care workers. Furthermore, it is proposed that social skills training competencies be included in training programs for Child and Youth Care workers.
Children and youth placed in group care facilities for treatment of physical, emotional, cognitive and behavioural problems are being characterized by what seems to be an increasing number of terms and constructs. For example, they might be described according to handicapping conditions (mentally retarded, developmentally disabled), pathological states (conduct disorders, emotional disturbance), socioeconomic status (disadvantaged youth, culturally deprived) and/or juvenile justice dispositions (delinquent, abused, in need of supervision). Originally intended to give Child and Youth Care workers and other service providers a more thorough picture of the problems experienced by youth, it seems that this categorization process has left many struggling with the issues of initiating a treatment plan and identifying a central, unifying principle around which these diverse youth can be best understood.
It does not seem surprising, therefore, that Child and Youth Care with its emphasis on developing social (Trieschman, Whittaker & Brendtro, 1969), educational (Brendtro & Ness, 1983) and caring (Maier, 1980) relationships in the total life space of the youngster has turned to social competence (White, 1978), a dimension along which all youth can be understood. In mapping out their visions for the future of the child care profession, Ferguson and Anglin (1985, p. 97) claim that “child care has developed within a model of social competence rather than in a pathology-based orientation to child development.”
Yet, while the field seems to have naturally moved toward this unifying body of theory, it has only begun to explore and articulate its applications to practice. For example, a review of current literature in Child and Youth Care produces few examples of how social competence theory can be used in the milieu and only cursory references to the work of leaders in this area. In this article, therefore, we will describe basic social competence principles and procedures leading to social competence for youngsters served in group care facilities.
According to social competence theory each youth represents a collection of behaviours which are more or less adaptive and can be viewed as influencing his/her ability to conform to the expectations and standards established by society. The more competent the child in the social domain (as well as in the other developmental domains), the more likely he/she is able to respond appropriately to the requirements of his/her culture. Conversely, the less competent the child, the less likely he/she is able to respond adaptively.
Typically, upon admission to a treatment centre, a mechanism to understand and treat these children and youth is set into operation. Assessment may involve looking at the family, social, educational, community and self systems through which these youngsters pass. The goal is to identify the reasons for the child and family’s failure to develop and function adaptively. Some would contend, however, that all too often this activity focuses mainly on identifying and alleviating the pathological conditions which have brought about the need for treatment rather than describing repertoires which need to be acquired or strengthened. Further, it is important to recognize that this may well be the failing of this assessment process since the emphasis on isolating and identifying negative behaviours may not always be accompanied by an attempt to identify positive behaviours which should be developedand refined. Nonetheless, whether the problem be with the assessment tool or the attitudes of thepractitioner, the end results often leave workers looking for something positive to do.
Social learning theorists associated with the evolving body of practice and research on social skills training would suggest that these youngsters end up in treatment programs because they are manifesting limited and antisocial behavioural repertoires. In other words, they are socially incompetent or dysfunctional as are their families and that without direct training and intervention to build more positive behaviours little will occur to directly enhance these youngsters’ abilities to deal effectively with the personal and social demands of their environment. Social skills training represents a step in the direction of responding to this need.
Definitions and Theoretical Origins
Social skills training methods represent a melding of techniques derived from the social learning theory literature and adaptive behaviour outcomes implied from social competence theory and adult handicapped-vocational adjustment research. It can be described as a structured and direct teaching approach which facilitates the acquisition, production and generalization of personal and social behaviour. For the purposes of this discussion personal behaviour is defined as behaviour which is directed to oneself or which is characterized as intra-individual in nature. In most cases, depending on the theorist, this refers to such broad functions as feelings, self-esteem, stress reduction, etc. In a practical sense, this may be operationalized as teaching the youngster to label his feelings, display selfcontrol, deal with failure and so forth.
On the other hand, social behaviour is defined as behaviour which is directed to others or which is characterized by inter-individual exchanges. Here the referent is to interpersonal behaviour, aggression management, expression of affect, etc. Specifically, this may mean such behaviours as cooperation, sharing feelings, apologizing, sportsmanship, etc., and others depending on the population, setting and program.
Characteristics of Procedures
Gresham (1982) suggests that this technology is comprised of three trainer elements:(a) antecedent manipulation; (b) consequence manipulation; and (c) modeling. More familiarly, combinations of the following are typically found in social skill methods, materials and systems:(a) modeling; (b) behavioural rehearsal; (c) feedback; (d) positive correction; (e) reinforcement; and (f) generalization training. Each of these components will be discussed in the sections to follow.
Modeling
Most, if not all, approaches to social skills training include the element of modeling or observational learning. This usually involves the presentation to the youngster of an exemplary version of the behaviour to be learned. Some approaches employ mediated presentations of the behaviour on videotape or film (Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman & Sheldon-Wildgen, 1981) while others require the behavioural exemplar to be presented by live models (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw & Klein, 1980). Nevertheless, the common philosophical tenet of these approaches is that the learner must see the behaviour in order to learn it efficiently.
For example, when a youngster in treatment needs to develop “listening to peers and adults in group settings,” the worker will need to arrange a modeling display for the youth which presents this skill. Perhaps it might be modeled by workers or youngsters who possess the skill in a group setting or presented on video tape if the worker has access to that technology. In addition, the worker should take care to exemplify the skill on a day-to-day basis in his/her interactions with the youngsters in treatment so that incidental modeling displays can be exploited in conjunction with the more direct training process.
Goldstein et al. (1980), however, caution the practitioner that pure exposure to appropriate models is often not enough to produce imitation. He further suggests that modeling must be “enhanced” through the selection of models which appear to the learner, application of personalized reinforcement for imitated behaviour and manipulation of modeling frequency. More detailed explanations of modeling research can be found in Bandura (1969) and Kirkland and Thelen (1977).
Behavioural Rehearsal
Behavioural rehearsal or role playing is that element of social skills training which allows the learner to practice, in a structured and supportive manner, the behaviour which has been modeled. This emphasis on opportunity to practice and refine the modeled behaviour is often in sharp contrast to those approaches which encourage the youngster, through discussion, to try a different course of action in problem situations.
Modeling and behavioural rehearsal go hand in hand. In fact Goldstein et al. (1980) have described both of these as necessary elements in social skills training if behaviour is going to be changed, and if each used in isolation is insufficient to insure effective maintenance and generalization of behaviour change. For example, once the skill has been modeled either by the worker or a youngster who already displays the behaviour, the child developing the skill is given opportunities to practice the behaviour. This might occur within the situation in which the skill is being taught as in a therapeutic group or on an individual basis.
Research also suggests methods of using this element effectively by stressing the role that volition, reinforcement, public expression and improvisation play in capitalizing on behavioural rehearsal opportunities. It is a common experience in other areas of behavioural acquisition like athletics, arithmetical computation, language fluency, etc., that opportunities to practice are linked to proficiency. The same is no less true in social competence.
Feedback and Positive Correction
The elements of feedback and positive correction are best discussed within the same context and represent elements which are not always included in or emphasized enough in some approaches to social skills acquisition. Feedback is defined here as knowledge or results (i.e., correct or incorrect) and is to be distinguished from reinforcement or incentive elements which will be discussed in the following section. When the Child and Youth Care worker take the time and care to detail the skill to be acquired with a high degree of precision, it also warrants providing feedback with the same degree of specificity. Positive correction incorporates feedback but also provides opportunities to try the behaviour again immediately following an incorrect display of the modeled behaviour. This tends to strengthen the association between the behaviour and the conditions under which the behaviour is displayed. Ideally, after the learner displays the behaviour incorrectly, he is told that it is incorrect or what elements are incorrect and given another opportunity to try the behaviour again.
As an example of feedback, the worker might inform the youngster that, “You’re getting close. Now try to keep your eyes focused on Tony’s without laughing and show more interest.” The feedback which is positive and specific, is delivered in such a way that the self-esteem of the youngster is preserved.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is defined as an incentive or reward, and is to be distinguished from feedback although the two operations are best used jointly. In most applications, reinforcement may fall into one of four categories: primary, social, activity or token. It is a common feature of many residential treatment programs to have a reward system in place for appropriate behaviour. Social skills training programs also incorporate a reinforcement operation either through reward delivered by the trainer or by the youngster. Goldstein et al. (1980) for example, emphasize employing naturally occurring reinforcers or self-reinforcement while Stephens (1978) recommends a contracting system.
If social reinforcement were the choice, the worker might say to the effective listener, “That was good. You gave good eye contact and you were paying attention. I could tell be the expression of your face.” Or if a reward system were in place, the worker might say, “You displayed four out of the five behaviours which make-up effective listening. That was good! You’ve earned four points.”
Generalization Training
Perhaps the most commonly ignored aspect of behaviour change and treatment is including elements which serve to insure that the newly acquired skill is transferred to wider and more real environments. Baer, Wolf and Risley (1968, p.97) have stated that generalization “should be programmed rather than expected or lamented.” Viewed within the context of the residential treatment centre this not only requires opportunities to learn new skills but also requires attention to strengthening the behaviour once it is learned beyond the initial training environment.
Many models of social skills training include components which insure that the youngster has the opportunity to try the new skill in the setting in which it was problematic or in a series of settings which approximate the problematic one. Goldstein et al. (1980) and others call this homework. It is viewed as an essential aspect of the education and treatment process.
Once the youngsters in the social skills training group display listening skills consistently, then the worker would want to be certain that these skills are being displayed in other aspects of group living, in family contexts and in school. The worker must arrange opportunities for this to occur and evaluate whether or not the behaviour has been learned.
Implications for Child and Youth Care Workers
Social skills training represents an area that needs to be considered for inclusion in the skill repertoires of Child and Youth Care workers. It is a methodology that can support the accomplishment of treatment plans for troubled and handicapped youngsters by not only prescribing prosocial outcomes but also be providing a proactive and humane method for acquiring these outcomes.
Child and youth care workers also enjoy the greatest opportunity by virtue of time spent with youth to affect change on an hour-to-hour, day-by-day basis especially when compared to other professionals on the treatment team. This would tend to maximize treatment opportunities and as well as maximize the treatment dollar.
Child and youth care workers can employ this methodology in the following ways:
Conclusions
In summary, social skills training provides the child and youth worker with a structured and systematic tool to teach and strengthen adaptive behaviours in troubled youth. It is complimentary to the existing body of Child and Youth Care technique both in terms of outcomes as well as means of accomplishment. In other words, it attempts to develop the troubled youth to the greatest extent possible while employing humane and effective methods.
Social skills training is certainly not a particularly new technology. It probably represents what good human service professionals of all vintages have been using on an informal basis throughout the history of the profession. What is significant about the technology is its positive, proactive and systematic nature.
Consequently social skills training methods is a professional competency that should be developed in Child and Youth Care training programs along with others such as case management, counselling, intervention, communication and assessment. The evolving profession and professional in Child and Youth Care should work to insure social competence in troubled and handicapped youth by teaching prosocial behaviour directly as an integral part of the treatment process.
References
Baer, D.M., Wolf, M.M., & Risley, T.R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behaviour analysis. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 1, 91-97.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behaviour modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Brendtro, L.K., & Ness, A.E. (1983). Re-educating troubled youth: Environments for teaching and treatment. New York: Aldine.
Ferguson, R. V., & Anglin, J.P. (1985). The child care profession: A vision for the future. Child Care Quarterly, 14, 85-102.
Greshman, F.M. (1983). Social Skills instruction for exceptional children. Theory into practice, 21, 129-133.
Goldstein, A.P., Sprafkin, R.P., Gershaw, N.J., & Klein, P. (1980). Skillstreaming the adolescent: A structured learning approach to teaching prosocial skills. Champaign, Illinois: Research Press.
Hazel, J.S., Schumaker, J.B., Sherman, J.A., & Sheldon-Wildgen, J. (1981). Asset: A social skills program for adolescents. Champaign, Illinois: Research Press.
Kirkland, K, & Thelen, M. (1977). Uses of modeling in child treatment. In B. Lahey & A. Kazdin (Eds.), Advance in clinical child psychology. Vol. I. New York: Plenum.
Maier, H. (1979). The core of care-essential ingredients for children away from home. Child Care Quarterly, 8, 161-173.
Stephens, T.M. (1978). Social Skills in the classroom. Columbus, Ohio: Cedars Press. Trieschman, A., Whittaker, J., & Brendtro, L. (1969). The other 23 hours. Chicago: Aldine.
White, R. (1978). Competence as an aspect of personal growth. In M. Kent and J. Rolf (Eds.) The primary prevention of psychopathology: Promoting social competence in children: Vol. 3. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England.
This feature: Fox, R.G. and Krueger, M.A. (1987). Social Skills Training: Implications For Child And Youth Care Practice, Journal Of Child Care, 3 (1). Pp. 1-7
