Listen to thisA recent study in the Journal of the American Medical Association demonstrated the seriousness of bullying in American schools. In a nationally representative sample of over 15,686 students in the United States (grades 6 through 10), 29.9% self-reported frequent involvement in bullying at school, with 13% participating as a bully, 10.9% as a victim, and 6% as both (Nansel et al., 2001). Aggression and violence during childhood and adolescence have been the focus of much research over the past several decades (e.g., Loeber & Hay, 1997; Olweus, 1979). These researchers have found that serious forms of aggression remain relatively stable from childhood through adulthood; however, Loeber and Hay (1997) argue that mild forms of aggression may not begin for some children until early or late adolescence. Despite Loeber and Hay's findings, very little research has been conducted on mild forms of aggression, such as bullying, during the middle years. One notable gap in the evolving literature on bullying and victimization during early adolescence is the role that peers play in promoting bullying and victimization by either reinforcing the aggressor, failing to intervene to stop the victimization, or affiliating with students who bully. This Digest looks at the limited research available on the role of the peer group in bullying to learn more about how bullying and victimization might emerge or continue during early adolescence.
Definitions of bullying
While definitions of bullying often differ semantically, many of them
have one concept in common: Bullying is a subtype of aggression (Dodge,
1991; Olweus, 1993; Smith & Thompson, 1991). The following definitions
are common in the literature: “A person is being bullied when he or she
is exposed, repeatedly over time, to negative actions on the part of one
or more other students' (Olweus, 1993, p. 9). “A student is being
bullied or picked on when another student says nasty and unpleasant
things to him or her. It is also bullying when a student is hit, kicked,
threatened, locked inside a room, sent nasty notes, and when no one ever
talks to him" (Smith & Sharp, 1994, p. 1).
Peer acceptance and status
During early adolescence, the function and importance of the peer group
change dramatically (Crockett, Losoff, & Petersen, 1984; Dornbusch,
1989). Adolescents, seeking autonomy from their parents, turn to their
peers to discuss problems, feelings, fears, and doubts, thereby
increasing the salience of time spent with friends (Sebald, 1992;
Youniss & Smollar, 1985). However, this reliance on peers for social
support is coupled with increasing pressures to attain social status
(Corsaro & Eder, 1990; Eder, 1985). It is during adolescence that peer
groups become stratified and issues of acceptance and popularity become
increasingly important. Research indicates, for example, that toughness
and aggressiveness are important status considerations for boys, while
appearance is a central determinant of social status among girls (Eder,
1995). Some researchers believe that the pressure to gain peer
acceptance and status may be related to an increase in teasing and
bullying. This behavior may be intended to demonstrate superiority over
other students for boys and girls, either through name-calling or
ridiculing.
Setting the stage for bullying in middle
school
Research with elementary school children in other countries supports the
view that peer group members reinforce and maintain bullying (e.g.,
Craig & Pepler, 1997; Salmivalli et al., 1996). These authors contend
that bullying can best be understood from a social-interactional
perspective (i.e., bullying behaviors are considered a result of a
complex interaction between individual characteristics, such as
impulsivity, and the social context, including the peer group and school
social system). Participation of peers in the bullying process was
clearly evident when Pepler and her colleagues videotaped aggressive and
socially competent Canadian children in grades 1 through 6 on the
playground; peers were involved in bullying in an astounding 85% of
bully episodes (Craig & Pepler, 1997). Similarly, in a survey study of
sixth-graders in Finland, the majority of students participated in the
bullying process in some capacity, and their various participant roles
were significantly related to social status within their respective
classrooms (Salmivalli et al., 1996). Clearly, peers play an
instrumental role in bullying and victimization on elementary school
playgrounds and within classrooms.
Transition to middle school and “fitting in"
Less well understood are the peer dynamics associated with bullying
during the transition from elementary school to middle school. Some
researchers speculate that this transition can cause stress that might
promote bullying behavior, as students attempt to define their place in
the new social structure. For example, changing from one school to
another often leads to an increase in emotional and academic
difficulties (Rudolph et al., 2001); bullying may be another way that
young people deal with the stress of a new environment.
A short-term investigation of over 500 middle school students (grades 6-8) found an increase in bullying behavior among sixth-graders over a 4-month period (Espelage, Bosworth, & Simon, 2001). The authors speculated that the sixth-graders were assimilating into the middle school, where bullying behavior was part of the school culture. This speculation is supported by the theory that bullying is a learned behavior, and that as they enter middle school, sixth-graders have not yet learned how to interact positively in the social milieu of the school. Many sixth-graders who wish to “fit in" may adopt the behaviors “including teasing “of those students who have been in the school longer and who have more power to dictate the social norm.
Two recent studies further examined the hypothesis that middle school students opt to bully their peers to “fit in" (Pellegrini, Bartini, & Brooks, 1999; Rodkin et al., 2000). Pellegrini and colleagues found that bullying enhanced within-group status and popularity among 138 fifth-graders making the transition through the first year of middle school. Similarly, Rodkin and colleagues, in a study of 452 fourth- through sixth-grade boys, found 13.1% were rated as both aggressive and popular by their teachers. Furthermore, these aggressive popular boys and popular prosocial boys received an equivalent number of “cool" ratings from peers.
These two studies do not examine how the influence of the peer group on bullying behaviors differs across sex, grade, or level of peer group status. A study by Espelage and Holt (2001) of 422 middle school students (grades 6-8), using a survey that included demographic questions, self-report, and peer-report measures of bullying and victimization, and measures of other psychosocial variables, examined the association between popularity and bullying behavior. Despite the finding that bullies as a group enjoyed a strong friendship network, the relationship between bullying and popularity differed for males and females, and also differed across grades. The most striking finding was the strong correlation between bullying and popularity among sixth-grade males, which dropped considerably for seventh-grade males and was not associated for eighth-grade males. Closer examination of peer cliques in this sample found that students not only “hung out" with peers who bully at similar rates but that students also reported an increase in bullying over a school year if their primary peer group bullied others (Espelage, Holt, & Henkel, in press).
Conclusion
We cannot assume that bullying among young adolescents is a simple
interaction between a bully and a victim. Instead, recent studies and
media reports suggest that there are groups of students who support
their peers and sometimes participate in teasing and harassing other
students. It seems important for families, schools, and other community
institutions to help children and young adolescents learn how to manage,
and potentially change, the pressure to hurt their classmates in order
to “fit in."
For more information
Corsaro, W. A., & Eder, D. (1990). Children's peer cultures. Annual Review of Sociology, 16, 197-220.
Craig, W. M., & Pepler, D. J. (1997). Observations of bullying and victimization in the school yard. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 13, 41-59.
Crockett, L., Losoff, M., & Petersen, A. C. (1984). Perceptions of the peer group and friendship in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 4(2), 155-181.
Dodge, K. A. (1991). The structure and function of reactive and proactive aggression. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 201-216). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Dornbusch, S. M. (1989). The sociology of adolescence. Annual Review of Sociology, 15, 233-259.
Eder, D. (1985). The cycle of popularity: Interpersonal relations among female adolescents. Sociology of Education, 58(3), 154-165. EJ 322 823.
Eder, D. (1995). School talk: Gender and adolescent culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ED 388 393.
Espelage, D. L., Bosworth, K., & Simon, T. S. (2001). Short-term stability and change of bullying in middle school students: An examination of demographic, psychosocial, and environmental correlates. Violence and Victims, 16(4), 411-426.
Espelage, D. L., & Holt, M. K. (2001). Bullying and victimization during early adolescence: Peer influences and psychosocial correlates (pp. 123-142). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press.
Espelage, D. L., Holt, M. K., & Henkel, R. R. (in press). Examination of peer group contextual effects on aggression during early adolescence. Child Development.
Loeber, R., & Hay, D. (1997). Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 371-410.
Nansel, T. R., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., Ruan, W. J., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among U.S. youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(16), 2094-2100.
Olweus, D. (1979). Stability of aggressive reaction patterns in males: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 86(4), 852-875. EJ 216 558.
Olweus, D. (1993). Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Long-term consequences and an effective intervention program. In S. Hodgins, Mental disorder and crime (pp. 317-349). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pellegrini, A. D. (2002). Bullying, victimization, and sexual harassment during the transition to middle school. Educational Psychologist, 37(3), 151-164.
Pellegrini, A. D., Bartini, M., & Brooks, F. (1999). School bullies, victims, and aggressive victims. Factors relating to group affiliation and victimization in early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 216-224.
Rodkin, P. C., Farmer, T. W., Pearl, R., & Van Acker, R. (2000). Heterogeneity of popular boys: Antisocial and prosocial configurations. Developmental Psychology, 36(1), 14-24. EJ 602 204.
Rudolph, K. D., Lambert, S. F., Clark, A. G., & Kurlakowsky, K. D. (2001). Negotiating the transition to middle school: The role of self-regulatory processes. Child Development, 72(3), 929-946. EJ 639 740.
Salmivalli, C., Lagerspetz, K., Bjorkqvist, K., Osterman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles in their relations to social status within the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22(1), 1-15.
Sebald, H. (1992). Adolescence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Smith, P. K., & Sharp, S. (Eds.). (1994). School bullying: Insights and perspectives. London: Routledge.
Smith, P. K., & Thompson, D. (1991). Practical approaches to bullying. London: David Fulton.
Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers, and friends. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
This feature is an ERIC Digest, November 2002
