Listen to thisAdolescents face a range of developmental issues. Havighurst (1952) suggested that two important areas included work and relationships. Levinson (1978) focussed on changing relationships and on exploration, while Erikson (1968) commented on intimacy and commitment to goals. Super (1963) indicated that exploring and crystallizing vocational choice are important to older adolescents and young adults. What seems evident is that older adolescents and young adults enter transitions with the goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as they strive to meet evolving personal and career related needs. Rapid and escalating changes in labour market and post-secondary educational opportunities mean that adolescents now are confronted with the challenge of meeting their personal and career needs when neither can offer certainty or a sense of personal control.
Transition from high school
A longitudinal study by Amundson, Borgen, and Tench (in press) found
that young people left high school unprepared for current career
realities and that both the career and personal areas of their lives
were in a state of change and uncertainty. At the end of their final
year of high school, young people in the study expressed optimism about
entering the career area of their choice and they expected to be
successful workers in challenging jobs which offered personal
satisfaction. About half the respondents indicated some concern about
meeting post-secondary entrance standards. Approximately 9 and 18 months
following graduation, depression, self-esteem, and anxiety were
correlated with a range of perceived problems, including money, lack of
support from family and friends, internal attribution of general
transition problems, external attribution of career/employment
difficulties, and lack of job satisfaction.
At the end of the study, some of the young people were interviewed. They were asked about factors that helped or hindered the post-high-school transition. Positive factors included supportive family and friends, making money, satisfying leisure activities, personal achievements, and educational success. Negative factors included relationship problems, career confusion, financial difficulties, unemployment, lack of satisfying work, lack of post-secondary educational opportunities, and difficulty in adjusting to post-secondary educational demands. Developmentally, the young people were trying to meet personal and career-related needs, which were in a state of flux and uncertainty. It was apparent that a lack of progress in one area could have a negative influence on the other (e.g., an inability to gain post-secondary educational admission or paid work could drastically alter one's ability to move from being a dependent adolescent to an independent adult).
An expanded view of work with adolescents – promoting competence
The above study suggests a need for a broader view of career
counselling; counselling which recognizes the developmental needs of
young people, the influence of social and economic changes, and the
importance of basing intervention strategies on personal and career
competence, all within a context of diminished and changing
opportunities for choice. In order to address this broader range of
issues, we have employed a competence model with eight main areas
(Amundson, Borgen & Tench, in press): purpose, problem solving,
communication skills, theoretical knowledge, applied knowledge,
organizational adaptability, human-relations skills, and
self-confidence. We also have developed a number of counselling
strategies that facilitate a smoother transition:
1. Developing Multiple Plans.
Many young people leave high school with a narrow plan of action and
with few alternatives. They fully expect to be successful with the plan
and are not prepared to face any barriers. Developing flexibility in
career planning requires a sense of purpose, problem solving skills, and
several plans. Helpful strategies include visualization, lateral
thinking, assessing options, and decision making in a context of
uncertainty (Gelatt, 1989).
2. Self-Advocacy and Marketing.
As young people move towards further education, or into the labour
market, it is critical for them to market and advocate for themselves.
With scarce opportunities and confusing bureaucracies, there is a need
to develop communication skills, self-confidence, organizational
adaptability, and effectiveness in human relations. This requires
activities such as mentoring, role-played practice, and ongoing
economic, emotional, and informational support.
3. Managing Changing Relationships.
The emotional and social changes adolescents experience can challenge
young people as they try to cope with barriers in the education system
and labour market. Friends provide emotional support, but this is a time
when friendship patterns are changing. Parents are needed for emotional,
material, and information support, but, at the same time, they need to
allow young people sufficient room to develop their own sense of
identity. Coping with relationship issues can be facilitated through
communication, human relationship training, and problem solving, which
blurs most of the traditional distinction between career and personal
counselling.
4. Meeting Basic Needs.
Young people have a strong need for community. Other central needs
include having a sense of meaning in life, physical and emotional
security, and basic structure in relationships and living. As young
people mover beyond high school, many of these basic needs require
revaluation. In addition to changing relationships, questions emerge as
to how to make a living, how to plan meaningful activities, and how to
effectively manage time. To facilitate these changes, young people need
to establish a sense of purpose and understand how they are meeting
their current and future needs. Counsellors can help clarify these
issues. Without this type of developmental assistance, young people
often lack the resilience to manoeuver within increasingly competitive
educational and labour market environments.
5. Coping with Stress.
Adolescence is a period of considerable stress. While much of the stress
can by minimized through support, persistence, and active decision
making and planning, there still will be times when young people find
themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress is associated
with various competencies such as organizational adaptability, human
relations, problem solving, and self-confidence. Particular strategies
for stress management include relaxation techniques, managing 'self
talk,' focussing, and using support systems.
6. Coping with Loss.
We were surprised at the extent to which young people were influenced by
various personal losses. These losses involved death in the family
(usually grandparents) and the experience of parental separation and
divorce. The impact of these losses upon career events was considerable,
suggesting a definite need for youth to develop competence in handling
loss and grieving. Counselling in this domain blurs many of the
traditional distinctions between the personal and career areas.
7. Bridging Programs.
Many young people lack “hands-on" experience as they attempt to enter
the world of work. Many also are unfamiliar with, and fearful of, moving
into post-secondary education. To address this concern, counsellors need
to develop work experience and co-op education programs to help young
people acquire the necessary experience. Post-secondary education entry
programs can also play an important role in easing transition
difficulties.
8. Information and Information Access.
The challenge in the information age is not only how to gather
information, but how to turn information into personally relevant
knowledge. Young people need up-to-date information on careers,
education programs, and market trends.
They must also develop skills to assess the relevance of information.
Acquiring these skills involves both theoretical and applied knowledge.
Counseling strategies within this domain include helping young people
develop research, interviewing, and critical analysis skills.
Conclusions
The breadth of the above components suggests that:
References
Amundson, N. E., Borgen, W. A., & Tench, E. (in press). Personality and intelligence in career education and vocational guidance counselling. In D. H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner (Eds.) International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, New York: Plenum.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.
Gelatt, H. B. (1989). Positive uncertainty: A new decision making framework for counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 252-256.
Havighurst, R. J. (1952). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McKay.
Levinson, D. (1978). The seasons of a man's life. New York: Ballantine.
Super, D. E. (1963). Career development: Essays in vocational development. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
